Thirty years ago our homes had a few electrical items -- a radio, tv, fridge, vacuum, record player, maybe a washing machine. In today's 'electronic age', our homes contain video recorders and cameras, microwaves, clothes dryers, dishwashers, sega games, computers, music centres, telephone answering machines, faxes, power tools, and a range of kitchen appliances. Our workplaces have undergone a similar shift, with IT or 'information technology' such as faxes, photocopiers, computers, laser printers, scanners and multimedia devices.

This case study takes a look at the hidden environmental story behind electrical and IT products and investigates the options we have when these products no longer work or have simply become out of date.

WHY ARE WASTE I.T. AND
ELECTRONICS IMPORTANT?
Electronic and IT products are being thrown away in increasing numbers and at increasing rates.

It is predicted that by the year 2005 about 150 million personal computers will be in US landfills -- one football field a mile high.

Whilst they may only represent three percent of our waste, end-of-life electrical and IT products are important for other reasons:
Products such as fridges and photocopiers are large and don't degrade in landfill.
Many contain small amounts of hazardous materials -- the back of television screens and computer monitors are coated with about one kilo of lead.
Electronics contain tiny amounts of valuable, scarce raw materials. A typical computer circuit board contains copper, iron, aluminium, bromine, lead, tin, nickel, antimony, zinc, silver, gold, cadmium, tantalum, molybdenum, palladium, beryllium, cobalt, cerium, platinum, lanthanum and mercury.

LIFECYCLE IMPACTS
Manufacturing electrical and IT products uses energy and produces waste. Silicon Valley, birthplace of the computer industry, is home to the highest concentration of hazardous waste sites in the US. To get a complete picture of environmental impact we need to look at the product from its cradle to grave, see box below.

DESIGN TO DISCARD
The idea behind 'mass production' is to make many items cheaply. Making products to last longer costs more (especially when disposal is 'free' to producers) and long-term savings aren't obvious when we're in the shop. 'Designing for obsolescence' creates sales opportunities as cus-tomers come back when products no longer work.

Another reason for the greater number of electrical goods in our garbage is the increasing pace of technological change. As new models are released more often, 'old' models are superseded and discarded more frequently.

Computers are a classic example. In the 1970s new microchip processors were developed every year or two. These days newer, faster chips come out every three months. The competitive urge to use the latest and fastest chip drives computer manufacturers to bring out new computers every six months. The cycle continues -- as new software is developed to take advantage of faster computers. Old computers can't use new software -- so consumers face the choice of being 'left behind' or buying more often. Do you want to buy a new computer every couple of years?

And before you buy, you might ask yourself whether the 'latest model' on the shelf is just a stylish rehash of the old product.

THE PHONE
A UK company which accepts discarded telephones for reprocessing estimates that more than 80 percent of the phones they receive are in perfect working order.

Extending Producer Responsibility can shift 'end of product life' costs to producers creating incentives to 'extend product life'. Let's have a look at some of the options this might bring consumers.

My computer stares at me 40 hours a week COMPOSITION: It's made up of 25 kilograms of plastics, metals, glass and silicon. Its heart is just a hundredth of a kilo of silicon and metal formed into integrated circuits known as 'chips'. Though weighing next to nothing, making chips generates the most waste.    The 400-step process involves silica, carbon, hydrochloric acid, hydrogen, ultra-violet rays, phosphorus, boron, gold, silver and precision machinery. In Malaysia workers get a few dollars an hour cutting silicon chip wafers.    Circuit boards are made from copper, fibreglass, epoxy resin, more chemicals, heavy metals, energy, water and tin solder. IMPACT: Making my 25 kilo computer generated 63 kilos of waste and used 27,700 litres of water and 2300-4000 kilowatt hours of energy. PREFERRED: Flat panel laptops produce half the waste to make and run on a third of the power. -- FROM 'STUFF' (RYAN AND DURNING)

WHAT ARE THE ALTERNATIVES
FOR END OF LIFE?
REUSE
Many 'old' computers are still useful if not 'state of the art'. Redistributing and reusing these computers is increasing in the US, where tax concessions are granted to companies who donate unwanted equipment. But it is wishful thinking to assume that reuse of dated technology will suit everybody and every product. Reuse needs to be complemented with cradle-to-cradle design, repair, reconditioning, upgrading and recycling.

RECYCLE
Electrical and IT goods are built from com-ponents made from materials as diverse as glass, metal, plastic, cardboard, textiles and even wood. Estimates suggest that at least 95 percent of a computer or television can be recycled. But of course it's not so easy to disassemble these products for reuse, recycling, or reselling. Local councils don't have the resources to do this, and so we see appliances being dumped in landfill or on the kerbside.

TO RECYCLE A TELEVISION
You need to collect the old tv without breaking it then dismantle into nine components -- to give circuit boards, cables, capacitors, cathode ray tubes, copper wire, aluminium, steel, plastic and wood. Cathode ray tubes can be further split into the metal mask, the front glass (minus the fluorescent coating material), and the tapered back glass.

Collecting, dismantling and recycling a television needs to be planned before the old unit lands on our kerb. Cradle-to-cradle thinking when we design can make product reuse and recycling more viable. Table 1 outlines some tools designers can use.

What do recyclers say? One UK electronics recycler recovers and resells nearly 80 percent of the plastics it handles. It claims plastics can be recovered to 100 percent purity for less than it costs to make virgin resin. What is needed is a 'clean', unmixed waste stream and products made from pure, stronger plastics. This recycler is calling for product takeback legislation.

REMANUFACTURE
Appliances are often thrown away simply because one component no longer works. In these cases remanufacturing might be more eco-efficient than recycling.

 Case study 1: Remanufacturing toner cartridges
Toner cartridges are the containers which hold and gently spill powdered toner or ink onto paper as it passes through printers and photocopiers. When your cartridge runs out of toner, you have a couple of options. One is to recycle. This might involve shipping the cartridge overseas, then separating it into four kinds of plastic, aluminium, steel, teflon, glass fibre, and rubber; then melting, remoulding, rebuilding and refilling the cartridge.
   The other option is to call a local remanufacturer -- there are 400 in Australia -- who replaces worn parts (such as the light sensitive drum which rolls toner onto the page and the felt wipers which keep the unit clean) and then refills the cartridge. According to remanufacturers, this process can be repeated up to ten times. And it costs significantly less than new or recycled units -- in terms of dollars and energy.

TABLE 1 Cradle-to-cradle design DISMANTLING -- snaps replace screws and welding. RECYCLING -- fewer materials of greater purity. Component labelling. UPGRADING -- modular construction, simpler casings. RECONDITIONING -- parts which wear more quickly can be bought separately, and are easily replaced. DURABILITY. Parts which quickly wear are designed to last or become redundant. An Australian firm, Kyocera, has designed a printer without a toner cartridge -- toner goes directly into the machine. 'FORWARD CAPABILITY'. For example upgradable computers -- with access for extra ports, additional memory, and newer microprocessors. Other examples include washing machines and dishwashers with upgradable 'software' which controls cycle times and energy use. Eliminate hazardous materials. For example, flame retardants (which contain bromine), mercury-free connectors, cadmium and mercury free batteries.

TABLE 2 EPR product support systems Leasing and repair/upgrade agreements -- for larger appliances such as fridges, washing machines, photocopiers. Quality assurance and warranties which cover upgraded or reused items. 'Reuse and repair' agreements instead of 'single use' licensing. Take Back, deposits, trade-ins for old equipment.

 Case study 2: Making business by unmaking waste computer disks
'Green Disk' is a small US business which employs 25 people to manage the waste stream of software publishers -- which is mostly high quality computer floppy disks. Outdated software packages, containing commercially sensitive material are erased, reformatted and sold as 'worn, written once, read never'. The company claims failure rates of about one in a million. And for every box of diskettes purchased, five kilos is diverted from landfill. For an Australian company, see the section Further Reading below.

Computer remanufacture is also emerging as a new business area. A recent US study predicts that by 2005, 80 million computers will be available for takeback and that for every computer landfilled, three will be remanufactured. For useful contacts see the section Further Reading below.

However, recyclers and remanufacturers have little control over product design. If we are to pursue the design options outlined in Table 1, we need to Extend Producer Responsibility.

This brings us to a quandary: reuse and reconditioning seem to favour small operators, but EPR programs are most likely to be initiated and carried out by larger companies. Can big multinationals and local small business work together to overcome the temptation to simply ship our waste overseas? At present, reuse or reconditioning are seen as 'anti-competitive' -- or a direct threat to the sale of the new products made by large manufacturers.

Consider our first case study. Printer manufacturers profit more from selling toner cartridges than printers. So it's no surprise there's a battle going on between big and small business over remanufactured toner cartridges. Consumers are left stranded, as manufacturers void warranties on their machines if remanufactured cartridges have been used. And remanufacturers will only cover damages if you link the failure of the machine directly to a defective remanufactured cartridge. Table 2 outlines some of the tools needed to complement EPR and protect consumers.

EXTENDING PRODUCER RESPONSIBILITY

THE PHONE
In 1994 British Telecom began collecting unwanted telephones. Between 1995 and 1996 two and a half million phones were collected. Since then, the proportion of phones reused or remanufactured rose from 25 percent to 70 percent. Simple design changes improve the recyclability of new phones. Today, product information is moulded into the phone casing, instead of using adhesive labels.

Of course not all products are as simple as the phone. Managing waste electrical and IT products costs money. Old products might contain hazardous or polluting chemicals (such as CFCs in fridges) or valuable components might be difficult to separate. The logistics of collection, transporting goods between countries, presale levies and quality checks will also shape costs.

There's more to closing material loops than knowhow and cradle-to-cradle thinking. Sufficiency, producer responsibility, ecological tax reform, and more stringent controls on waste disposal all play a part in shifting us toward sustainable consumption. It's visionary stuff -- especially when we consider some of the barriers mentioned here. Despite the setbacks, voluntary and forced EPR systems are emerging.

EPR action overseas The European Union is preparing takeback legislation. Some countries have already acted. The Netherlands proposes to place the responsibility for the takeback of electrical appliances with manufacturers and importers, using municipalities and retailers as collectors. German industry has proposed takeback for IT products. A similar process has been initiated by US manufacturers, where some states have already mandated takeback. North Carolina has a senate bill which extends producer responsibility for whitegoods. Taiwan has mandated for producer responsibility and takeback for computers, TVs, fridges, air conditioners, and washing machines. Similar moves are underway in Japan.

 Case study 3: Voluntary EPR
Fuji Xerox, a multinational manufacturer and retailer of photocopiers, faxes, and printers has an 'asset recovery management' program. Takeback and remanufacturing are integrated into operations so that recycling, repair, reuse, remanufacturing and making new products occur on the same assembly lines. The company saved $200 million in the first four years. The close orientation of assembly and takeback allows for 'closed loop' recycling within the company -- for example recycled plastics from photocopiers are used in toner cartridges. The program also reverses distribution logistics, using reusable transport packaging.
   In Sydney, the company has been repairing photocopiers for the last 30 years. The advent of laser technology has made remanufacturing more viable. Nowadays, remanufacture occurs along-side repair. Remanufactured photocopiers are sold with a full service agreement and the same warranty as new copiers. Last year, 3500 machines were reconditioned for about 40 percent of the cost price of a new copier.

 Case study 4: Rechargeable batteries
Batteries are responsible for most of the heavy metals in our household garbage. NiCads (containing nickel and cadmium) are the most common rechargable batteries. We import about eight million of them every year -- for power tools, video cameras, remote controls and mobile phones.
   NiCads are less than one hundredth of a percent of our waste -- but they contribute to over half of the cadmium in landfill leachate. Cadmium is toxic to humans, plants, crustaceans and fish. Studies have shown that long-term low-dose exposure to cadmium can lead to malfunctions of the liver, kidneys and lungs. So larger NiCads are classified as hazardous waste in NSW. But about 40 million NiCads have already been dumped via our household garbage collection. And we can expect to double the number in landfill by the year 2000. It's difficult to see how local council and landfill operators can prevent us from throwing spent NiCads in the garbage. So how do we stop NiCads going to landfill?

RECYCLING AND REMANUFACTURE
Spent NiCads can be thermally treated, recapturing up to 99 percent of the cadmium to make more NiCads; and recycling nickel to make stainless steel. The US, France, Sweden, Japan and Switzerland have recovery facilities. The trick is getting a separate collection system up and running.

ALTERNATIVES
Batteries are an inefficient source of energy. Can we be manual or less mobile? Another strategy to cut down on environmental load is to keep products working longer. Here's some hints on how to maintain your NiCads by 'deep cycling'.

Takeback in Australia Australian mobile phone importers are investigating a pilot takeback for some 2.5 million used NiCads from analogue mobile phones. They aim to start in late 1998.    A takeback and recycle program has been setup by US manufacturers. Two hundred companies pay to display a 'takeback' logo on their products -- which means you can take the spent batteries to retailers or public agencies. They aim to recycle 70 percent of NiCads. In Canada, batteries are collected from 2000 retail outlets in reusable containers.    For more information on the Australian pilot, contact Michael Milligan at the Australian Mobile Telecommunication Association on 02 6230 6055.

Deep Cycling your NiCad
Before using, charge new NiCads for 15 hours to increase capacity.
Fully discharge (you can tell by a sudden drop in speed or power), and let the NiCad cool before recharging.
Recharge completely. This avoids a loss in capacity. Don't return fully charged batteries to the charger for an 'extra boost'.

Nickel metal hydride, and lithium ion rechargable batteries are less toxic alternatives. A comparison of alternatives to NiCads can be found at: www.rbrc.com/bat.htm#A

WHAT CAN I DO?
Ask your retailer about alternatives. Check if the battery can be removed from the product once spent -- this might be an issue for some toys.
Ask local councils and NSW government what they propose to do with used NiCads.
Contact Friends of the Earth, Sydney ph: 02 9283 2004 fax: 02 9283 2005. Download sample letters soon to appear on this website.

FURTHER READING
Batteries
DAS Centre for Environmental Management, Nickel cadmium battery waste study for Telstra, August 1997 REPORT
Rechargable Battery Recycling Corporation ORGANISATION at www.rbrc.com
Firstenberg, 'Just about nowhere is safe from the mobile phone', Third Opinion, Summer 1998, JOURNAL ARTICLE. Contact Third Opinion, PO Box K133, Haymarket 1240 or email: foesyd@foesyd.org.au

Toner cartridges
Pickin, 'The Environmental impacts of paper-consuming office technologies in Australia', Australian Conservation Foundation, 1996 REPORT. Contact ACF, Melbourne ph: 03 9416 1166
Stone, 'What it means to be green', Recharger Magazine, August 1997, JOURNAL ARTICLE.
Waddell, 'Reprogramming: Keeping the cartridge', Australian Personal Computer magazine, March, 1998 JOURNAL ARTICLE at apcmag.com
To find toner cartridge-free printers, contact Kyocera COMPANY at www.ecomall.com.au/PRODS/TENANTS/KYOCERA/kyocera.html

Electronics and Computers
Gertsakis, Ryan, Hoy, 'Short-circuiting waste from electrical and electronic products', Centre for Design at RMIT, Melbourne, 1997 BOOKLET. Contact National Centre for Design at RMIT, GPO Box 2476V Melbourne 3001, ph: 03 9925 2362 or email: cfd@rmit.edu.au
European Commission, 'Working paper on waste electronics', October 1997 SUMMARY PAPER at amored@nsc.org
Ryan and Durning, 'Stuff -- the secret lives of everyday things', 1997 BOOK Northwest Environment Watch at new@northwestwatch.org or www.northwestwatch.org/stuff.html
Young J, 'Global network: computers in a sustainable society', Worldwatch paper number 115, contact Worldwatch Institute at 1176 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington DC or www.worldwatch.org/pubs/paper/115.html
US Redistribution ORGANISATIONS. Contact www.libertynet.org/reusephl/other.html and www.microweb.com/pepsite/Recycle/recycle_index.html
US EPA, ORGANISATION. Recycling list at www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/recycle/index.htm#docs or the Reuse and Recycling Directory at earth1.epa.gov/OSWRCRA/non-hw/recycle/reuse/electdir/recycle1.htm
The Electronic Product Recovery and Recycling Project in the US at www.nsc.org/ehc/epr2.htm
The Common Sense Initiative at www.epa.gov/commonsense
Green Disk, ORGANISATION at www.igc.org/greendisk
Greendisk, COMPANY at 03 9796 2655

THIS PROJECT HAS BEEN ASSISTED BY THE NEW SOUTH WALES GOVERNMENT THROUGH ITS WASTE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT FUND'S WASTE REDUCTION PROGRAM. THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED IN THIS MATERIAL DO NOT NECESSARILY REFLECT THE POLICIES OF THE NSW GOVERNMENT.